1 Introduction

Adaptive evolution refers to the process through which populations of organisms undergo genetic changes that enhance their fitness in a specific environment. This process is driven by natural selection, where advantageous traits become more common in the population over successive generations. In wild animals, adaptive evolution is crucial as it enables species to survive and thrive amidst changing environmental conditions. For instance, studies have shown that additive genetic variance in fitness can lead to rapid adaptive evolution in natural populations, which can significantly impact population dynamics and mitigate the effects of environmental changes (Bonnet et al., 2022).

Understanding adaptive evolution in wild animals is essential for several reasons. Ecologically, it helps us comprehend how species interact with their environment and respond to selective pressures such as climate change, predation, and competition (Grainger and Levine, 2021). Evolutionarily, it provides insights into the mechanisms that drive biodiversity and the emergence of new traits (Wu et al., 2020). From a conservation perspective, knowledge of adaptive evolution can inform strategies to preserve endangered species by identifying populations that are capable of adapting to rapid environmental changes9. For example, genetic monitoring has been used to study adaptive responses in various species, highlighting the importance of adaptive evolution in conservation biology (Hansen et al., 2012).

This study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the key traits and evolutionary mechanisms involved in adaptive evolution in wild animals. This study explores various traits such as body size, development rate, and fecundity, and how they evolve in response to different selective pressures; additionally, examines the molecular mechanisms underlying adaptive evolution, including the role of regulatory elements and gene losses. By synthesizing findings from multiple studies, this study seeks to enhance our understanding of adaptive evolution and its implications for ecology, evolution, and conservation.

2 Key Adaptive Traits in Wild Animals

2.1 Morphological adaptations

Morphological adaptations are physical changes in an organism's structure that enhance its ability to survive and reproduce in its environment. One classic example is the variation in beak shapes among bird species, which is often driven by the type of food they consume. For instance, finches on the Galápagos Islands exhibit a wide range of beak shapes and sizes, each suited to different feeding strategies, such as cracking seeds or catching insects. This diversity in beak morphology is a direct response to the availability of different food sources, demonstrating how physical traits can evolve to optimize resource utilization. Similarly, limb length in reptiles can vary significantly depending on their habitat and lifestyle. Arboreal reptiles, which live in trees, often have longer limbs to aid in climbing and navigating through branches, while terrestrial reptiles may have shorter, sturdier limbs for efficient movement on the ground. These morphological traits are crucial for the survival and reproductive success of these species, as they directly impact their ability to find food, escape predators, and reproduce (Rodrigues et al., 2018).

2.2 Behavioral adaptations

Behavioral adaptations are actions or patterns of activity that enhance an organism's ability to survive and reproduce. Migratory patterns in birds are a prime example of such adaptations. Many bird species migrate seasonally to exploit different ecological niches, moving to warmer regions during winter to access food and breeding grounds, and returning to cooler areas during summer. This behavior ensures that they can find adequate resources year-round and avoid harsh climatic conditions. Another example is foraging behavior, which can vary widely among species based on their ecological niches (Aghogho et al., 2022). For instance, some animals have developed specialized hunting techniques, such as the use of tools by certain primates to extract insects from tree bark or the cooperative hunting strategies observed in wolves and dolphins. These behaviors are often learned and passed down through generations, highlighting the role of social learning in the evolution of adaptive behaviors (Cruz et al., 2022).

2.3 Physiological adaptations

Physiological adaptations involve changes in an organism's internal processes that enhance its ability to survive in its environment. Thermoregulation is a key physiological adaptation that allows animals to maintain their body temperature within a viable range despite external temperature fluctuations. For example, mammals and birds have developed endothermy, the ability to generate and retain body heat through metabolic processes, which enables them to remain active in cold environments. Osmoregulation is another critical physiological adaptation, particularly for aquatic animals that need to maintain the balance of salts and water in their bodies. Fish, for instance, have specialized cells in their gills that actively regulate the uptake and excretion of salts, allowing them to thrive in both freshwater and marine environments. These physiological mechanisms are essential for maintaining homeostasis and ensuring the organism’s survival and reproductive success (Mahakosee et al., 2022).

2.4 Genetic adaptations

Genetic adaptations are changes in the genetic makeup of a population that enhance its ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment (García-Velásquez et al., 2020). These adaptations often involve changes in allele frequencies within the population, driven by natural selection. For example, the peppered moth in England is a classic case of genetic adaptation. During the Industrial Revolution, the prevalence of dark-colored moths increased dramatically due to the selective pressure of pollution-darkened trees, which provided better camouflage against predators. This shift in allele frequency was a direct response to environmental changes, demonstrating how genetic adaptations can occur rapidly in response to selective pressures. Gene flow, the transfer of genetic material between populations, also plays a crucial role in genetic adaptation. It can introduce new genetic variations into a population, enhancing its ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. For instance, the introduction of new alleles through gene flow can increase a population’s genetic diversity, providing a broader range of traits for natural selection to act upon (Jiang et al., 2019).

2.5 Reproductive adaptations

Reproductive adaptations are strategies that enhance an organism’s ability to reproduce successfully. These adaptations can include mating strategies, such as the elaborate courtship displays seen in many bird species, which serve to attract mates and ensure successful reproduction. For example, the peacock’s extravagant tail feathers and display behaviors are designed to attract females and signal genetic fitness. Parental investment is another critical reproductive adaptation, where parents invest time and resources into the care of their offspring to increase their chances of survival. In many mammal species, such as elephants and primates, extended parental care ensures that the young receive adequate nutrition, protection, and social learning, which are essential for their development and future reproductive success. These reproductive strategies are vital for the continuation of the species, as they directly impact the survival and reproductive success of the offspring. By understanding these key adaptive traits, researchers can gain insights into the evolutionary processes that shape the diversity of life on Earth. These adaptations not only highlight the incredible versatility and resilience of organisms but also underscore the importance of preserving diverse habitats to maintain the ecological balance and evolutionary potential of species (Martínez-Burgos et al., 2020).

3 Evolutionary Mechanisms Driving Adaptation

3.1 Natural selection

Natural selection is a primary mechanism driving adaptive evolution in wild populations. It operates by favoring individuals with traits that increase their fitness in a given environment, leading to changes in allele frequencies over generations. For instance, studies on wild bird and mammal populations have shown substantial additive genetic variance in relative fitness, indicating that natural selection can significantly influence population dynamics and help species adapt to rapid environmental changes. Additionally, research on the vinous-throated parrotbill (Sinosuthora webbiana) demonstrated that preexisting standing genetic variation plays a crucial role in local adaptation to different altitudes, with recent selection acting on these variants (Figure 1) (Lai et al., 2019). These findings underscore the importance of natural selection in shaping adaptive traits in response to environmental pressures.

Figure 1 (A) The vinous-throated parrotbill and four sites (red dots) on an east–west section of central Taiwan at which vinous-throated parrotbills were sampled and (B) the distribution of the FST and ΔFST in the east and west high-/low-altitude local population pairs of each 10-kb nonoverlapping genomic window that was aligned with the published genome of the zebra finch (Adopted from Lai et al., 2019) Image caption: Red dots on top of and within each panel represent candidate regions on the genome (n = 24); red horizontal lines indicate the top 1% of FST and ΔFST. EH, high-altitude population east of CMR; EL, low-altitude population east of CMR; WH, high-altitude population west of CMR; WL, low-altitude population west of CMR (Adopted from Lai et al., 2019)

Lai et al. (2019) found that the genetic differentiation between high- and low-altitude populations of the vinous-throated parrotbill in central Taiwan is significant. By analyzing the distribution of F_ST and ΔF_ST across the genome, they identified several candidate regions that might be associated with local adaptation to different altitudes. These regions, marked as red dots, represent the top 1% of F_ST and ΔF_ST values, indicating high genetic differentiation. The study suggests that the parrotbill populations on either side of the Central Mountain Range (CMR) exhibit distinct genetic structures, influenced by the altitudinal variation. This differentiation likely reflects adaptive responses to the diverse environmental conditions across the altitudinal gradient, contributing to our understanding of how geographic and ecological factors drive genetic divergence in avian species.

3.2 Genetic drift

Genetic drift, the random fluctuation of allele frequencies, has a pronounced impact on small populations. It can lead to significant genetic changes over time, independent of selective pressures. In small populations, genetic drift can reduce genetic diversity and potentially limit adaptive potential. For example, studies on adaptive divergence in fission yeast populations under varying degrees of gene flow revealed that genetic drift, along with demography, can constrain the speed of adaptation (Stephan, 2021). Furthermore, research on Arabidopsis lyrata populations showed that genetic drift, combined with local selection and gene flow, influences the genomic patterns of local adaptation8. These case studies highlight the complex interplay between genetic drift and other evolutionary forces in shaping adaptation (Bonnet et al., 2022).

3.3 Gene flow and migration

Gene flow, the movement of genes between populations, introduces new genetic material and can either facilitate or hinder adaptation. It can increase genetic diversity and provide raw material for selection, but excessive gene flow can also swamp local adaptation by homogenizing populations. Experimental evolution studies on fission yeast demonstrated that adaptive divergence was most pronounced in the absence or presence of maximal gene flow, while intermediate levels of migration reduced divergence (Tusso et al., 2021). Similarly, research on Arabidopsis lyrata indicated that gene flow from high to low altitudes played a significant role in local adaptation, with asymmetric migration patterns affecting the genetic architecture of adaptive traits. These findings illustrate the dual role of gene flow in promoting and constraining adaptation.

3.4 Mutation

Mutations are the ultimate source of genetic variation, providing new alleles that can be acted upon by natural selection. They are essential for generating the genetic diversity necessary for adaptive evolution. For instance, studies on Drosophila simulans exposed to a new temperature regime revealed a polygenic architecture of adaptive traits, with high genetic redundancy among beneficial alleles (Barghi et al., 2019). This research showed that natural populations harbor a vast reservoir of adaptive variation, facilitating rapid evolutionary responses through multiple genetic pathways. Additionally, research on high-altitude adaptation in various species has highlighted the role of novel mutations in driving phenotypic and genetic changes under strong selective pressures. These examples underscore the importance of mutations in generating the genetic diversity required for adaptation.

3.5 Sexual Selection

Sexual selection, a form of natural selection, influences the development of traits that enhance mating success and can lead to increased species diversity. It operates through mate choice and competition for mates, driving the evolution of traits that may not necessarily improve survival but increase reproductive success. For example, research on threespine stickleback demonstrated that predator presence altered selection on defensive armor traits and underlying genes, highlighting the role of biotic interactions in driving sexual selection and species divergence (Hämälä and Savolainen, 2019). Additionally, studies on the adaptive potential of wild animal populations have shown that sexual selection can interact with other selective pressures, influencing the evolution of multiple traits (Hao and Lei, 2022). These findings illustrate the significant impact of sexual selection on trait development and species diversity. In summary, the mechanisms of natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, and sexual selection each play crucial roles in driving adaptive evolution in wild animal populations. Understanding these mechanisms and their interactions is essential for comprehending the evolutionary processes that shape biodiversity.

4 Case Studies of Adaptive Evolution

4.1 Adaptive radiation in darwin’s finches (morphological diversification and ecological niches)

Darwin’s finches are a quintessential example of adaptive radiation, where multiple ecologically distinct species evolve rapidly from a single ancestor. This phenomenon is primarily driven by adaptation to new ecological opportunities. The finches exhibit significant morphological diversification, particularly in beak shape and size, which allows them to exploit different ecological niches on the Galápagos Islands. Studies have shown that the beak morphology of Darwin’s finches is highly variable and has evolved in response to the availability of different food sources, such as seeds andinsects (Reaney et al., 2020). The genomic architecture underlying this phenotypic diversity includes ancestral haplotype blocks that predate the speciation events, suggesting that these genetic modules play a crucial role in the finches’ ability to adapt to environmental changes (Figure 2) (Rubin et al., 2022). Additionally, large effect loci have been identified that explain a significant portion of the variation in beak size, further highlighting the genetic basis of this adaptiveradiation.

Figure 2 PCA morphospace of beak morphology of endemic Galápagos species and their respective ancestral monophyletic clades (Adopted from Rubin et al., 2022) Image caption: “Non-Galápagos” Coerebinae, Mimidae and Myiarchus include all Caribbean and continental lineages in those clades. Species illustrated, clockwise top left: Geospiza magnirostris, Myiarchus magnirostris, Laterallus spilonota, Zenaida galapagoensis, Mimus macdonaldi and Buteo galapagoensis (Adopted from Rubin et al., 2022)

Rubin et al. (2022) found that the beak morphology of endemic Galápagos bird species exhibits significant divergence when compared to their respective ancestral monophyletic clades. The principal component analysis (PCA) illustrates how the Galápagos species have adapted distinct beak shapes, reflecting ecological diversification and niche specialization. Notably, Darwin’s finches (red) and Galápagos mockingbirds (blue) show considerable separation from their non-Galápagos relatives, indicating substantial morphological evolution. The unique positioning of species such as the Galápagos flycatcher and the Galápagos dove further emphasizes the adaptive radiation driven by the isolated environment of the islands. This morphological divergence is a testament to the dynamic evolutionary processes shaping the biodiversity of the Galápagos archipelago, highlighting the influence of geographic isolation and ecological opportunity on speciation.

4.2 Industrial melanism in peppered moths (environmental changes and selective pressures)

Industrial melanism in the peppered moth (Biston betularia) is a classic example of natural selection driven by environmental changes. During the Industrial Revolution in England, pollution caused tree bark to darken, which in turn affected the camouflage of the moths. Dark-colored (melanic) moths had a survival advantage in polluted areas because they were less visible to predators compared to their lighter-colored counterparts. This led to an increase in the frequency of the melanic form in polluted environments. Recent studies using avian vision models and field experiments have provided strong evidence that the differential camouflage of the moth morphs directly relates to their predation risk. Pale moths more closely match lichen-covered backgrounds and have higher survival rates in unpolluted woodlands, while melanic moths are better camouflaged in pollutedareas (Enbody et al., 2022). This case study underscores the role of environmental changes and selective pressures in driving adaptive evolution (Carvajal-Endara et al., 2020).

4.3 Predator-prey dynamics, pollinator-plant relationships (interaction between species driving adaptive changes)

Predator-prey interactions and pollinator-plant relationships are critical drivers of adaptive changes in species. In the case of Darwin’s finches, their beak morphology has evolved not only in response to competition for seed resources but also due to the selective pressures imposed by their prey, such as the seeds of Tribulus cistoides. The hard, spiny fruits of T. cistoides are a significant food source for the finches, and the morphology of these fruits has evolved in response to seed predation by the finches. Studies have shown that finches impose phenotypic selection on T. cistoides fruit morphology, with smaller and harder fruits exhibiting higher seed survival. This ongoing coevolutionary arms race between the finches and T. cistoides varies in space and time, influenced by factors such as finch community composition andprecipitation (Walton and Stevens, 2018). This dynamic interaction exemplifies how species interactions can drive adaptive changes and contribute to the evolutionary diversification of traits (Navalón et al., 2020).

5 Recent Advances in Understanding Adaptive Evolution

5.1 Genomic approaches (advances in genomic technologies and their applications)

Recent advancements in genomic technologies have significantly enhanced our understanding of adaptive evolution (Bonnet et al., 2022). Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have become a powerful tool to identify genetic variations associated with adaptive traits across various species. For instance, GWAS has been instrumental in identifying loci responsible for beak size variation in Darwin’s finches, showcasing the genetic basis of morphological adaptations. Additionally, the advent of CRISPR-Cas9 technology has revolutionized evolutionary biology by enabling precise genome editing, allowing researchers to experimentally test the functional roles of specific genes in adaptation processes. This technique has been applied to study gene functions in various wild animal populations (Figure 3), providing deeper insights into the genetic mechanisms underpinning adaptive traits (Sharma et al., 2018).

Figure 3 Renal and metabolic adaptations in frugivorous bats (Adopted from Sharma et al., 2018) Image caption: A number of renal transporter genes (red, left side) that are specifically lost in fruit bats (large and black flying foxes) reduce urine osmolality in a mouse knockout. Thus, these gene losses likely contribute to the ability of fruit bats to efficiently excrete excess dietary water. Losses of metabolic genes (red, right side) are likely adaptive by improving the processing of the sugar-rich fruit juice. In contrast, gene losses shown in blue are probably a consequence of adapting to the frugivorous diet. These genes provide new insights into the metabolism of bats and corroborate the strong dependence of internal organs on using sugar as the main energy source (Adopted from Sharma et al., 2018)

Sharma et al. (2018) found that gene losses play a crucial role in the renal and metabolic adaptations of frugivorous bats. Specifically, the loss of several renal transporter genes helps these bats efficiently excrete excess dietary water by reducing urine osmolality, enhancing their ability to process the high water content in their fruit-based diet. Additionally, the loss of certain metabolic genes likely facilitates the processing of sugar-rich fruit juices, indicating an adaptive benefit for a frugivorous lifestyle. These genetic changes underscore the dependence of bats on sugar as a primary energy source and provide insights into their unique metabolic processes. Moreover, the loss of other genes appears to be a consequence of adapting to a diet rich in fruits, highlighting the complex evolutionary pathways that have shaped the physiology and metabolism of frugivorous bats. This study sheds light on how specific gene losses contribute to the ecological and dietary specialization in bats.

5.2 Environmental influences (impact of climate change and habitat alteration on adaptive evolution)

Climate change and habitat alteration are major drivers of adaptive evolution in wild animal populations (McGaughran et al., 2021). Shifting phenology, such as changes in the timing of breeding and migration, is a common response to climate change. For example, many bird species have adjusted their breeding times in response to earlier springs, ensuring that their offspring hatch when food availability peaks. Range shifts, where species move to new areas in response to changing environmental conditions, are also prevalent. Global warming has caused many species to expand their ranges poleward or to higher elevations to maintain suitable living conditions. These environmental influences exert selective pressures that drive genetic changes, facilitating adaptation to new climates and habitats (Garant, 2020).

5.3 Epigenetics (role of epigenetic modifications in adaptive evolution)

Epigenetic modifications play a crucial role in adaptive evolution by enabling rapid phenotypic responses to environmental changes without altering the underlying DNA sequence. Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, where epigenetic marks are passed from one generation to the next, allows for the persistence of adaptive traits in fluctuating environments. For example, research has shown that stress-induced epigenetic changes in plants can be inherited by offspring, enhancing their stress tolerance. Additionally, phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an organism to alter its phenotype in response to environmental stress, is often mediated by epigenetic mechanisms. This plasticity enables organisms to cope with varying environmental conditions, contributing to their survival and reproductive success (Hao and Lei, 2022).

6 Future Directions and Challenges

6.1 Integrating multidisciplinary approaches

The importance of interdisciplinary research in adaptive evolution cannot be overstated. Integrating ecology, genetics, and behavioral studies offers a comprehensive understanding of adaptive evolution in wild animals. For instance, the study of genetic variance in fitness across multiple wild populations has shown that adaptive evolution can significantly influence population dynamics, suggesting that natural selection can mitigate environmental changes (Bonnet et al., 2022). Additionally, molecular mechanisms underlying adaptive evolution, such as gene regulation and noncoding regions, have been identified as crucial areas for future research. By combining these genetic insights with ecological and behavioral data, researchers can develop a more holistic view of how species adapt to their environments (Brakes et al., 2019).

6.2 Conservation implications

Understanding adaptive evolution is vital for developing effective conservation strategies (Brakes et al., 2021). Conservation efforts can benefit from recognizing the role of adaptive evolution in maintaining genetic diversity and population resilience. For example, the concept of evolutionary rescue highlights how adaptive changes can improve the survival prospects of threatened species facing environmental changes. Case studies have shown that preserving genetic diversity and implementing adaptive management practices can enhance the effectiveness of conservation programs. The integration of animal culture and social learning into conservation strategies has also been proposed as a means to support population viability and resilience (Edelaar et al., 2022). These approaches underscore the need for conservation practices that consider both genetic and cultural aspects of species adaptation.

6.3 Addressing knowledge gaps

Despite significant advancements, several knowledge gaps remain in the study of adaptive evolution in wild populations. One major challenge is the limited understanding of how non-genetic inheritance and phenotypic plasticity contribute to adaptive evolution (Grainger and Levine, 2021). Additionally, the effects of selective pressures such as predation, competition, and climate change on trait evolution are not fully understood, as evidenced by the generally weak responses observed in meta-analyses (Sosa and Pilot, 2023). Future research should focus on these areas to develop a more comprehensive understanding of adaptive evolution. Moreover, the integration of structural and evolutionary analyses can reveal common mechanisms underlying adaptive evolution, providing new insights into the molecular basis of adaptation. Addressing these knowledge gaps will require innovative methodologies and interdisciplinary collaboration to advance the field of adaptive evolution.

7 Concluding Remarks

Adaptive evolution in wild animals is driven by a variety of traits and mechanisms that enable species to survive and thrive in changing environments. Key adaptive traits include morphological changes, such as body size and wing development, as well as phenological shifts, like altered breeding times in response to climate change. Evolutionary mechanisms underlying these adaptations often involve genetic changes, including gene regulation and loss, as well as phenotypic plasticity and non-genetic inheritance3. Studies have shown that while some adaptive responses are effective, others are insufficient to fully match the new environmental conditions, highlighting the complexity and variability of adaptive evolution.

Understanding adaptive evolution is crucial for comprehending biodiversity and species survival. These studies provide insights into how species respond to environmental pressures, which is essential for predicting the impacts of climate change and other anthropogenic factors on wildlife. By identifying the genetic and phenotypic bases of adaptation, researchers can better understand the resilience and vulnerability of different species, informing conservation strategies and efforts to preserve biodiversity. Additionally, the study of adaptive evolution helps elucidate the broader principles of evolutionary biology, contributing to our knowledge of how life on Earth evolves and adapts over time.

The field of adaptive evolution is dynamic and continually evolving, with new technologies and methodologies offering deeper insights into the mechanisms driving adaptation. Future research should focus on integrating multi-omics data, exploring non-coding regions of the genome, and investigating the role of epigenetics in adaptive evolution. There is also a need for long-term studies that monitor evolutionary changes over extended periods and across diverse environmental conditions. Encouraging ongoing research and exploration in this field is vital for advancing our understanding of adaptive evolution and its implications for biodiversity and species survival in a rapidly changing world. Continued efforts will not only enhance our scientific knowledge but also support effective conservation and management practices to protect the natural world.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the two anonymous peer reviewers for their thorough review of this study and for their valuable suggestions for improvement.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The authors affirm that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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